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2 4 2 Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition through Listening（第1页）

2.4.2incidentalvocabularyacquisitionthroughlisteningmostworkonsecondlanguageincidentalvocabularyacquisitionhasfocusedonhowsuchlearningoccursduringinteractionswithwrittentextsordiscourse，i.e.，howsuchlearningoccursinreading（e.g.，hirsh&nation1992;laufer1997）.considerablylessworkhaslookedatincidentalvocabularyacquisitionthroughlistening.nevertheless，manyl2learners，likel1learners，relyonauralinputastheprimarysourceofinformationaboutthetargetlanguage.throughlisteningtheylearntoidentifytheformsandmeaningsofnewwords，whichtheythenrememberandinduecoursecometousethemselves.thissectionfirstbrieflyreviewsstudiesinincidentalvocabularyacquisitionfromlisteningtostoriesinl1，andthenreportsstudiesthatinvestigatedincidentalvocabularyacquisitionfroml2listening.

2.4.2.1incidentalvocabularyacquisitionfromlisteningtostoriesinl1

thereissomeevidencethatchildrencanpickuptheirl1vocabularyastheyarebeingreadto（e.g.，elley，1989;fondas，1992;penno，wilkinson，&moore，2002）.

innewzealand，twostudiesbyelley（1989）investigatedtheeffectsonvocabularyacquisitionofreadingastorybooktosome7-8-year-oldpupils.inthefirststudy，twentytargetwordswereselectedfromabookthoughtbytheresearchertobeunfamiliartostudentsofthisagegroup.amultiple-choicepre-testwasgiventothestudentspriortothetreatment.thetestincludedtenpicturevocabularyitemswheretheteacherreadaloudthetargetwordandaskedthestudentstoselectwhichofthefourpicturesbestmatcheditsmeaning.anothertwentywordswerepre-testedusingwordsynonyms.duringthetreatment，studentsheardthestoryreadaloudthreetimesoverthecourseofoneweek.resultsindicatedameanincreaseof15.4%overallwithchildrenscoringhigheronmosttargetwordsontheposttestthanonthepre-test.

inhissecondexperiment，elley（1989）soughtfurtherconfirmationoftheincidentallearningmeasuredinthefirstexperiment.inaddition，thisstudyconsideredpermanenceoflearningandintroducedteacherexplanationofvocabularyasatreatmentvariable.theexperimentfollowedapre-testposttestdesigntocomparetheeffectsofreadingtwostoriesaloud，withandwithoutexplanationofthetargetwords.asinthefirstexperiment，thestudentsheardthestoriesreadthreetimesoverthecourseofoneweek.threemonthsafterthereadingofthestories，adelayedposttestwasgivenwithoutwarningtothestudents.analysisforthestoryreadwithoutteacherexplanationwasnearlyidenticaltothefindingsinthefirstexperiment.themeangaininvocabularywas14.8%.however，forthegroupofstudentswhoheardanexplanationofthevocabulary，theoverallgainwas39.9%.theresultsofthedelayedposttestsofthetargetwordsrevealedadeclineofonly2-3%，whichtheresearcherconsiderednegligible.inanattempttostudyword-relatedvariablesthataffectvocabularygain，hefoundthemostreadilylearnedwordswerethosewithahelpfulsurroundingcontext，morethanonceoccurrence，andillustratedbypictures.elleythusconcludedthat“storiesreadaloudinthiswayappeartoofferapotentialsourceforreadyvocabularyacquisition...[and]repeatedexposureandhelpfulcontextaresignificantfactorsinvocabularyacquisition”（p.180）.

brett，rothlein&hurley（1996）examinedtheeffectsof3listeningconditions（storyonly，storywithwordexplanation，andnostory）on175fourth-gradersandfoundthatthestory-with-word-explanationgroupmadesignificantlymoreprogressinvocabularyfromthepre-teststothepostteststhanthestory-onlygroupandtheno-storycontrolgroup.unlikeelley'sstudies，thestudentsinthisstudyheardthestoriesonlyonce，but“thefindingsindicatedthatrepeatedreadingsofthesamestoryarenotnecessaryforvocabularyacquisitionifnewwordsareexplainedastheyareencounteredinthestory”（p.419）.

penno，wilkinson&moore（2002）evaluatedtheeffectsofrepeatedexposuretoastoryandtheadditiveeffectsoftargetwordmeaningexplanationonchildren'svocabularyacquisition.twostorieswerereadtoforty-seven5-6-year-oldchildrenonthreeoccasions，eachoneweekapart.onestorywasreadwithexplanationsofthetargetwords，buttheotherwasreadwithoutexplanations.twomultiple-choicevocabularytestsweregiventoensurethatnochildrenalreadyknewthetargetwordsinthestudy.allthechildrenwereaskedtoindividuallyretellthestorytotheexaminerandtheretellingwasaudiotapedforlatertranscriptionandcoding.thesamemultiple-choicetestwasgiventothechildrenatthebeginningandtheendofthestudy（week1andweek9）aswellastheintervalofthetwostories（week5）.resultsshowedbothofthefactorsunderstudy（repeatedexposureandexplanation）contributedsignificantlytovocabularygrowth.thechildrenwhoreceivedexplanationsscoredsignificantlyhigheronthemultiple-choicevocabularytestthanthosewhodidnot.asingleexposuretothestoryresultedinwordsbeinglearned，andthesecondandthirdreadingstothemresultedinchildrenbeingabletousewordswithincreasingaccuracyintheretellingtask，suggestingamorecomprehensiveunderstandingofthewordmeaning.

thesestudiespointoutsomefactorsthatencourageincidentalvocabularyacquisitionforchildrenlisteningtostoriesinl1，namelyrepetitionofthestoryandexplanationofthetargetwords.asnotedbynation（2001），thereareseveralconditionsthatmakelearningvocabularyfromlisteningtostoriesmorelikely:

1.interestinthecontentofthestory;

2.comprehensionofthestory;

3.understandingoftheunknownwordsandretrievalofthemeaningofthosenotyetstronglyestablished;

4.decontextualizationofthetargetwords;

5.thoughtfulgenerativeprocessingofthetargetvocabulary.（p.118）

theprecedingreviewsuggeststhatlisteningtostoriesbeingreadhasthepotentialtobeamajorcontributortogrowthinchildren'sl1wordbanksbecauseitisacommonoccurrenceintheclassroomofprimaryschools.significantbenefitsarederivedbychildrenwhenteachersreadstoriesaloudtotheamongthesebenefitsareincreasedlisteningskills，readingcomprehension，andvocabularygains.however，theresearchinthisareahasmainlyfocusedonchildren，i.e.，thebeginningstagesoffirstlanguagevocabularylearning.sincevocabularylearningdoesnotnecessarilyoccurinsimilarwaysatdifferentstagesofproficiency（meara，1984），thevocabularyacquisitionofmoreproficientstudentsdeservesfurtherexploring.

2.4.2.2incidentalvocabularyacquisitionthroughl2listeningcomprehension

apartfrompositivefindingswithl1children，researchwithl2learnershasalsoprovidedevidenceofincidentalvocabularyacquisitionfromlistening（e.g.，vidal，2003;brown，waring，&donkaewbua，2008）.

vidal's（2003）studyinvolved122spanishfirst-yearuniversitystudentstoexploretheeffectsofeflproficiencyandlecturecomprehensiononvocabularyacquisition.theparticipantswerepre-testedontheirknowledgeofthetargetwords，andwerepresentedwithaseriesofthree15-minutevideotapedacademiclectureswithsometrue-or-falsecomprehensionquestions.theparticipantsweretestedontheirknowledgeofthetargetwordsimmediatelyafterthelecturesandweretestedagainonemonthlaterfortheirretentionofthesamevocabularyitems.eachtargetwordwasmeasuredonamodifiedversionofthevocabularyknowledgescale（vks）originallydesignedbyparibakht&wesche（1997）.themaineffectoftime（i.e.，beforelistening，immediatelyafterlistening，andonemonthafterlistening）wasfoundtobestatisticallysignificant，andtheinteractioneffectbetweenlecturelisteningandproficiencywasalsofoundtobestatisticallysignificant.vidalthusconcludedthatlisteningtoacademiclecturescanbeasourceofeflvocabularyacquisition.thefindingsofherstudyalsoindicatedthatthestudentswithahigherlevelofenglishproficiencyacquiredmorevocabularyknowledge.moreover，thestudyshowedthatsomewordswereretainedoveraperiodofonemonth.

smidt&hegelheimer（2004）investigatedtheeffectsofonlinelecturesonvocabularyacquisitionof24universityesllearnersinusa.theparticipantscompletedapre-test，apost-testandadelayedpost-testonvocabulary，andacomputer-assistedlanguagelearning（call）activityincludinganacademiclecture.thethreevocabularytestswereconstructedusing20ofthemostdifficultvocabularyitemsintheacademiclecture.thecalltaskconsistedofthreecomponents，anauthenticacademiclecture，tenmultiple-choicecomprehensionquestions，andaccesstoanonlinedictionary.thecallactivitywasadministeredthedayafterthevocabularypre-test，andthevocabularypost-testanddelayedpost-testwereseparatelyconductedtwoweeksandfourweeksafterthepre-test.resultsshowedastatisticallysignificantdifferencebetweenthepre-testandthepost-test，andbetweenthepre-testandthedelaypost-test，whilethedecreaseofthemeanvocabularyretentionfromthepost-testtothedelayedpost-testwasnotstatisticallysignificant.theresearchsuggestedthatincidentalvocabularyacquisitionoccurredthroughtheuseofauthenticonlinevideosofacademiclecturesinthecallactivity.

brown，waring&donkaewbua（2008）examinedvocabularyacquisitionof35pre-intermediatetointermediate-levelstudentsofenglishinaprivatejapaneseuniversity，whoweredividedbyvariousconditionsintoareading-onlygroup，areading-while-listeninggroup，andalistening-onlygroup.three5，500-word-longgradedgroupsofreaderswereemployedwithatotalof28substitutewordsembeddedwithineachreadingtext.fulltextsofallthethreestorieswereprintedwithshortwrittenstoryintroductionsanddeliveredtotheparticipantsinthereading-onlyandreading-while-listeninggroups.however，onlythestoryintroductionsweregiventothelistening-onlygroup，withfullstoriesreadandrecordedatameanspeechrateof93wordsperminute.thereadingandlisteningactivitiestookplaceduringthreeregularclassesatintervalsoftwoweeks.twotests，ameaning-translationtestandamultiplechoicetest，weregiventoassessvariouslevelsofwordknowledge.thesetestswereadministeredimmediatelyafterthestoryreadingorlistening，and，toexamineretentionofwordknowledge，thesametestswithadifferentitemorderweredeliveredagainoneweekafterandthreemonthsafterthetreatments.

resultsoftheimmediatemultiplechoicetestindicatedsomeimpressivevocabularygainsof48%and45%fromthepre-testforthereading-while-listeninggroupandreading-onlygroup，andforthelistening-onlygroup，therewasa29%vocabularygain.nevertheless，themeaning-translationtestrevealedfewerwordgains，only16%，15%and2%forthethreegroupsintheaboveorder.brownandhiscolleaguesattributedthecomparativelyminimalvocabularyacquisitionratesofthelistening-onlygrouptothefactthatjapaneselanguagehasadifferentsyllablestructuretoenglishandthelearnerswere“incapableofprocessingthephonologicalinformationasfastasthestreamofspeech，”andthus“failedtorecognizemanyofthespokenformsofwordsthattheyalreadyknewintheirwrittenforms”（p.148），andtheyconcludedatthisstagethatthe“inaccurateperceptionofthepronunciationofwordsandphrasesispotentiallyagreaterbarrierinlisteningthaninreading”（p.157）.anotherreasontheygavewasthatthecoveragerateofalreadyknownwords，i.e.，95%wastoolowforthelistening-onlygroup，whichmadethetaskofinferringthemeaningofthe28targetwordstoochallenging.

kazuya（2009）investigatedtheeffectsofexplanationfromlisteningonvocabularyacquisitionof116second-yearjapanesehighschoolstudents.ninelisteningpassageswereused，with45vocabularyitemsembedded.inthefirstgroup，thestudentswereprovidedwithaspokenjapanesetranslationforeachtargetword;inthesecondgroup，thestudentswereprovidedwithaspokenenglishdefinitionofeachtargetword;andinthecontrolgroup，novocabularyexplanationwasgiven.approximately30minutesaftereachlisteningsession，animmediaterecognitionposttestandamultiple-choiceposttestweregiven.twoweeksaftertheinstruction，thesametestswereadministeredagainasthedelayedposttests.resultsshowedthattherewasastatisticallysignificantdifferencebetweenthethreegroupsinboththeimmediateanddelayedrecognitionposttests.thel1translationconditionwasmoreeffectivethanthel2definitioncondition，andthecontrolconditionwastheleasteffectiveone.however，asfortheimmediateanddelayedmultiple-choiceposttests，nostatisticallysignificantdifferencebetweenthel1andl2conditionswasfound.

thereviewedstudiesdemonstratethatlearnersacquiremeaningofnewwordsthroughlisteninginl2.vanpatten（1990）administeredastudyin202universitystudentsofspanishtodeterminewhetherlearnersofdifferentcompetencelevelswereabletoconsciouslyattendtobothvocabularyformandmeaningwhileprocessinginputfromlistening.thestudentswereaskedtoperformvarioustaskswhilelisteningtoapassageformeaningtotestthefollowingresearchhypotheses:1iflearnershavedifficultyindirectingattentiontowardbothcontentandform，thenataskinvolvingconsciousattentiontonon-communicativegrammatical-morphologicalformsintheinputwillnegativelyaffectcomprehensionofcontent.2ifthesesamelearnersarebasicallygoingformeaningfirst，ataskinvolvingconsciousattentiontoimportantlexicalitemswillnotaffectcomprehensionofcontent.3moreadvancedlearnerswillnotexhibitthesamepatternsofperformanceonthetasksastheearlystagelearners，i.e.，moreadvancedlearnerswillbemoreabletodirectattentiontoformsincetheyarebetterequippedtoattendtocontent.

theparticipantswereputinthreedifferentclassesaccordingtotheirlanguagelevels.eachclasslistenedtotwopassages.thefirstpassageservedasawarm-upandthesecondpassage，a3-minutelongrecordedsegmentoninflationinlatinamerica，wasusedastherealsourceofdata.theclasseswererandomlyassignedtocompleteoneoffourlisteningtasks.task1，thecontroltask，consistedoflisteningtothepassageforcontentonly.task2consistedoflisteningtothepassageforcontentandsimultaneouslynotingakeylexicalitem（inflacion）.task3consistedoflisteningtothepassageforcontentandsimultaneouslynotingadefinitearticle（la）.task4consistedoflisteningtothepassageforcontentandsimultaneouslynotingaverbmorpheme（-n）.eachitemoccurred11or12timesinthepassage.theparticipantswereaskedtoplaceacheckmarkanywhereontheirpapereachtimetheyheardtheiteforalltasks，theparticipantswereinstructedtolistenformeaningandweretoldthattheircomprehensionofthepassagewouldbeassessedafterward.theparticipantsweretoldaboutthetopicofthepassageandsomerelatedinformationbeforelisteningtothepassage，sothattheymightactivaterelevantbackgroundknowledgetoassistintheircomprehension.thecomprehensionassessmentconsistedoffreewrittenrecallsinenglish.immediatelyaftertheparticipantsheardthepassage，theywererequiredtowritedownanythingandeverythingthattheycouldrememberfromthepassage.theserecallprotocolswereconsideredasageneralindicationofcomprehensionandwouldreflecttherelativedegreeofattentionthattheparticipantscouldpaytothecontent.therecallprotocolsweresubsequentlyscoredindependentlyandtheinterraterreliabilitywas0.98.

concerningthefirsttworesearchhypotheses，theresultsrevealedasignificantdropinrecallscoreswhentheparticipantswereaskedtosimultaneouslylistenforcontentandnoteagrammaticalmorphemeoflittlereferentialmeaning.meanwhile，therewasnoevidencethatthesimultaneoustasksoflisteningforcontentandnotingalexicalitemresultinasignificantdropinrecallscores.inotherwords，consciousattentiontoimportantlexicalitemsdidnotaffectcomprehensionofthecontent，whileconsciousattentiontonon-communicativegrammatical-morphologicalformsintheinputnegativelyaffectedcomprehensionofthecontent.withempiricalsupportforresearchhypotheses1and2fromthestudy，theresearcherthussuggestedthat“thecommunicativelyloadeditemsininputreceiveconsciousattentionfromearlystagelearnersandbecomeavailableasintakeofthedevelopinglanguagesystem，whilegrammaticalmorphemesoflittlemeaningmaybeleftunattendedsincethey‘escape'attentiondirectedtowardmeaningorinformationcontent”（p.294）.

regardingthethirdhypothesis，mixedresultswerereceivedfromthestudy.whileleveliiistudentshadsignificantlydifferentrecallscoresfromleveliandleveliistudentsonthecontentonlytask（i.e.，leveliiicouldrecallmuchmore），theyperformedaboutthesameontheverbinflectiontask.thisfindingshowedthatforlowerlevelstudents，theremaybenodifferencebetweenboundandfreemorphemes，butthatforhigherlevelstudentsthereis.theresultsdonotsuggestthatearlystagelearnersarecompletelyincapableoffocusingonformintheinput，buttheresultsdosuggestthatafocusonformisprobablynotcontinuousintherealworldofinputprocessingwherethereisaprimaryfocusonmeaning.asvanpattennoted，“simultaneousconsciousattentiontoinformationalcontentand‘meaningless'formintheinputisdifficultfortheearlystageandtheintermediatestagelearner”（p.296）.

thefindingsthatlearnershaddifficultyinattendingtoformwhichdidnotcontributesubstantiallytothemeaningoftheinputregardlessoftypeofinputledvanpattentoconcludethatconsciousattentiontoformintheinputcompeteswithconsciousattentiontomeaning，andonlywhentheinputiseasilyunderstoodcanlearnersattendtoformofimportantlexicalitemsaspartoftheintakeprocess.inotherwords，studentscannotconcentrateonbothformandmeaningsimultaneously.

viewedretrospectively，itcanbeconcludedfromthestudiesreviewedsofarthat:

（a）incidentalvocabularyacquisitionoccursthroughlisteninginl2;

（b）meaningofthelexicalitemsthatareimportanttothecontentismorelikelytobeacquiredthannon-communicativeitemssuchasanarticleoramorpheme;and

（c）onlywhentheinputiseasyenoughforlearnerstounderstandcantheyalsoattendtotheformoftheimportantwords.

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