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7 3 2 Pedagogical Implications（第1页）

7.3.2pedagogicalimplications

thefindingsofthisstudysuggestthefollowingpedagogicalimplications.

textrepetitioninlisteningcomprehensionisclearlyhelpfulinfacilitatinglearners'listeningcomprehension，anditisespeciallyhelpfulforlearnerswithlowlisteningproficiency.inanauthenticcommunicativesetting，however，repetitionoforalinputmayonlyhappenwhenrequestedbythelistener.therefore，inorderforlearnerstodevelopthecompetenceneededforlisteninginarealcommunicativecontext，teachersneedtoreducerepetitionovertime.inotherwords，repetitionoflisteningtextsmaysuittheneedsofbeginners，butthefinalgoaloflisteningteachingistoenablelearnerstobeabletocomprehendinputinauthenticlisteningsettings.itissuggestedthereforethatforlearnerswithlowlisteningproficiency，eflteachersshouldstartwithprovidingopportunitiesforrepeatedlisteningandthengraduallymovetowardthefinalstateofone-timelistening.withregardtothedifficultylevelofthelisteningtexts，instructionshouldaimonlytoprovideinputthatisslightlyabovethelearners'currentlevelofcompetence.asarguedbyrost（2011，p.152），“byreceivinginputthatisprogressivelymorecomplex，thelearnernaturallyacquireslisteningability”.therefore，eflteachersshouldchoosereasonablychallenginglisteningmaterialstosuitlowproficiencylisteners，andastheircompetencedevelops，thelisteningtextscangraduallyincreaseinlinguisticdifficulty.

listeningtextsnotonlyservelearnersasatoolforpracticinglisteningbutalsoasasourceofincidentalvocabularyacquisition.therefore，whendesigninglisteningtextsforthepurposeofincidentalvocabularylearning，eflteachersshouldkeepthefollowingissuesinmind.

（a）newwordstobelearnedincidentallyinthelisteningtextsshouldbelimitedtoaverysmallpercentageofthetotalwordsinthetext.asnotedbyread（2004，p.150），“thevocabularylearninggoalsforminimumlevelsofbothlisteningandreadingcomprehensionneedtobesetsomewhathigherthan95percentcoverage”.hu&nation（2000）alsoarguedthatlearnersneedtoknowatleast98%ofthewordsinordertoreadindependently.“however，thereissimplynotenoughevidencetoconfidentlyestablishacoveragerequirementforlisteningatthemoment”（schmitt，2008，p.331）.theprimaryaimshouldbetoensurethatlearnersareabletocomprehendthetext.onlywhenthepercentageofnewwordsislowcanlearnerspossiblyattendtounknownwordsandguesstheirmeaningseffectively.

（b）eflteachersshouldmaximizemeaning—focusedexposureaswellasprovidingexplicitvocabularyinstruction.repetitionofthetargetwordsisanimportantconditionforincidentalvocabularyacquisitiontooccur.consideringthatwhatisretainedbythelisteneristheencodedinformationinmemory（danks&end，1987），wordswhichleavemoretracesinmemory（suchasfrequentlyrepeatedwords）maybemoreeasilyunderstoodthanthoseleavingfewertracesinmemoryduringlisteningcomprehension.asdescribedpreviously，themaximumexposurestothetargetwordsinthisstudywereonlysix，whichprobablycouldonlyleaveveryslighttracesofwordforminmemoryandwasnotsufficientforform-meaningmappingbythelearners.accordingtowebb（2007:64），when“learnersmeetunknownwordstentimesincontext，sizablelearninggainsmayoccur”.schmitt（2008）suggestedthat8-10readingexposuresmaygivelearnersareasonablechanceofacquiringaninitialreceptiveknowledgeofwords.therefore，itisadvisedthateachtargetwordshouldoccurseveraltimesindifferentcontextsinthelisteningtasks.asarguedbyhuckin&coady（1999，p.185）“therearesomanyvariablesinvolvedinlearningawordthatitisimpossibletodetermineanyonethresholdfornumberofexposures.muchdependsonsuchfactorsastheword'ssalienceinagiventext，itsrecognizabilityasacognate，itsmorphology，thelearner'sinterest，andtheavailabilityandrichnessofcontextclues”.

（c）thelinguisticpropertiesofthelisteningtexts:

thecontentoftextsshouldbefamiliartothelearners.nassaji（2003）foundthatthemostfrequentlyusedknowledgesourceforlexicalinferencinginreadingcomprehensionisworldknowledgeandthisfindingsuggeststhatcluesresidinginbackgroundknowledgewillassistcomprehension.eflteachersshoulduseordeviselisteningtextsthathavecontentrelatedtothelearners'backgroundknowledge.

thesentencesinwhichthetargetswordsareembeddedshouldprovidecluesforlearnerstoinferthemeanings.previousstudies（e.g.，bengeleil&paribakht，2004）revealedthatwhenusingcontextualclues，learnerstendtouselocalco-textclues（wordswhosemeaningscouldbeinferredbyusingtheimmediatesentencecontext）toinferwordmeaning.theyfoundthatlearnersfirststudythesentencecontainingthetargetwordtoinferthemeaningandonlylaterresorttotheco-textbeyondthetargetwordsentenceifnecessary.

wordswhichcontributetotheunderstandingofthetopicoftextsinalisteningtaskaremorelikelytobeunderstoodthanwordsdescribingfactualdetailsinthesamelisteningtask.therefore，thetargetwordsshouldoccurinthesentencesrelatingthetopicofthetext.

oneofthemosteffectivewaysofimprovingincidentallearningisbyreinforcingitafterwardswithintentionallearningtasks.therefore，follow-upworkisnecessarytopromoteawarenessoftheunfamiliarlexicalitemsinordertodeepenandextendthelearners'partialknowledge.someafter-listeningvocabularywork（e.g.，pronunciationhelp，reconstructionactivities，etc.）shouldbedevisedtoconsolidateandmaintainthepartialandvaguevocabularyknowledgethatlearnershavegainedfromlisteningtasks.

eflteachersshouldrecognizethat，eventhoughitmaybetime-consumingtopreparelisteningtextsandfollow-uptasks，theymaybenefitbothlisteningcomprehensionandvocabularyacquisition.

metacognitiveawarenesstrainingneedstobeconductedoveraperiodoftime，andlearnersalsoneedtimetograduallyactonthemetacognitivestrategiestheyhavereceivedtrainingin.themetacognitivelisteningstrategytraininginthestudywasconductedforonlyfiveminutes，anditwasclearlytooshortforthelearnerstoautomatizestrategyuse.learnersalsoneedtoapplythetaughtstrategiesbeyondtheclassroomlisteningcontexts.long-termtrainingcanprovidelearnerswithmoreopportunitiestoapplythelearnedstrategiesinreallifelisteningactivities.l2researchontheeffectoftrainingoninferencingmeaninginlisteningcomprehensionisextremelyscarce.theuseofthelexicalinferencingstrategyhasbeenmostlyexaminedinreadingcomprehensionresearchbuthasbeenshowntobenotalwayseffective.forinstance，hamada（2009）examined5japanesecollege-levelesllearners'meaninginferencingbehaviorsovera4-weekperiod，andfoundthelearnersdidnotshowaconsiderablechange.althoughsomestudies（e.g.，fraser，1999）provedl2lexicalinferencingstrategytrainingtobehelpfulinreadingcomprehension，thegeneralizabilityoftheirfindingstothelisteningisyetunclear.therefore，inordertodrawpedagogicallyusefulconclusions，moreresearchregardingtheeffectofl2word-meaninginferencetrainingisneeded.moreover，inferencinginlisteningmaybeproblematicandeflteachersshouldbecautiouswhenencouraginglessproficientstudentstoinferwordmeaninginlisteningcomprehension.lessproficientlistenersmayexperiencedifficultyinusingappropriateknowledgesourcestoinferwordmeaning，andonceanincorrectinferenceismade，itmayharmtextunderstanding.field（2008）recommendedthatlistenersshouldchecktheirinterpretationsagainstincominginformation.soeflteacherscaninstructstudentstolistentotextsembeddedwithunknownwordsbyaskingthemtoidentifyunknownwords，reportwhattheythinkthemeaningsofthewordsareandhowtheyarriveatthemeanings.thentheteachercanaskthestudentstolistenagainandencouragethemtocheckiftheirinferencematchestheexistingtextualinformation（lee&cai，2010）.

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