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2 3 1 Metacognition（第2页）

o'malleyandchamotconductedaseriesofempiricalstudies（e.g.，1989）basedoninformationprocessingtheoryandproposedacomprehensivelistoflearnerstrategies，ofwhichtheclassificationofmetacognitivestrategiesisanimportantpart.theydistinguishedthefollowing:

1.planning:previewingtheorganizingconceptorprincipleofananticipatedtask（advanceorganization）;proposingstrategiesforhandlinganupcomingtask;generatingaplanfortheparts，sequence，mainideas，orlanguagefunctiontobeusedinhandlingatask（organizationalplanning）.

2.directedattention:decidinginadvancetoattendingeneraltoalearningtaskandtoignoreirrelevantdistracters;maintainingattentionduringtaskexecution.

3.selectiveattention:decidinginadvancetoattendtospecificaspectsoflanguageinputorsituationaldetailsthatassistinperformanceofatask;attendingtoaspecificaspectoflanguageinputduringtaskexecution.

4.self-management:understandingtheconditionsthathelponesuccessfullyaccomplishlanguagetasksandarrangingforthepresenceofthoseconditions，controllingone'slanguageperformancetomaximizeuseofwhatisalreadyknown.

5.self-monitoring:checking，verifyingorcorrectingone'scomprehensionperformanceinthecourseofalanguagetask.

6.problemidentification:explicitlyunderstandingthecentralpointneedingresolutioninataskoridentifyinganaspectofthetaskthathindersitssuccessfulcompletion.and

7.self-evaluation:checkingtheoutcomeofone'sownlanguageperformanceagainstaninternalmeasureofcompletenessandaccuracy;checkingone'slanguagerepertoire，strategyuse，orabilitytoperformthetaskathand.（o'malley&chamot，1990，p.137-139）

ino'malley&chamot'smodel，theabovesevencategoriescanbeclassifiedaccordingtothreestages:advanceorganization，on-lineorganization，andpost-organization.

planning，directedattention，selectiveattention，problemidentificationandself-evaluationcanbegroupedintoadvanceorganizationwhichoccurspriortoalearningtask.planningisemployedasanoverallactionbeforealong-termtask，suchasmakingasemester-listeningplanatthebeginningofasemester.itcanalsobeashortandbriefplanforaspecificlearningtask，suchasplanningforhowtolistentoapassageandwhatstrategiesareappropriateforthetask.directedattentionintheadvanceorganizationstageinvolvesdecidinginadvancewheretodirectone'sattentioninatask.italsofunctionsasareminderforlearnerstomaintainattentionduringtaskexecution.selectiveattentionisusedinadvanceorganizationtoremindonetopayattentiontosomespecificaspectoflanguageinput.problemidentificationisusefulbeforeexecutingalearningtask，becauseitcanmakelearningmoreproblem-orientedandthusencouragelearnerstofindwaystosolvetheprobleevaluationisgenerallyagreedtooccurafteralanguagetask，butitcanalsooccurinadvancewhenlearnersuseittoevaluatehowdifficultataskisgoingtobeandwhatstrategyisappropriateinexecutingthetask.

thesecondgroupofmetacognitivestrategiesinvolvingon-lineorganizationincludesthosestrategiesemployedwhilelearningistakingplace.ino'malley&chamot'stypologytheyincludedirectedattentionwhichstudentsusetofocusonataskwhiletheyareengagedincompletingit.forexample，studentscanemploydirectedattentionduringthewhile-listeningstagetofocusonthekeywordsandignoreirrelevantones.selectiveattentionisalsoincludedinthiscategory.thisisusedtohelpstudentsattendtothetargetfeaturesordetailsduringtaskexecution.self-managementisanothermetacognitivestrategyusedinonlineorganization，whichisappliedtoarrangeandcontrolone'slanguageperformanceinordertomakethebestofwhatisalreadyknown.self-monitoringrelatesspecificallytoonlineorganization.itisfrequentlyemployedtocheck，verifyorcorrectone'scomprehensionorperformanceduringcompletionofatask，forexample，studentsuseself-monitoringtochecktheirunderstandinginthecourseofalisteningtask.furthermore，monitoringisnotonlyconfinedtomonitoringcomprehension.monitoringisalsoemployedtomonitortask，strategy，productionandsoon.

thelastgroupofmetacognitivestrategies，postorganization，typicallyinvolvesself-evaluation，whichisusedtocheckthelearningoutcomeorperformance.self-evaluationtakestheformsofproductionevaluation，performanceevaluation，abilityevaluationandstrategyevaluation.

similarly，oxford（1990）classifiedmetacognitivestrategiesintothreegroupsandtheyarefurtherdividedintoelevencategories:

1.centeringyourlearning:overviewingandlinkingwithalreadyknownmaterial，payingattention，anddelayingspeechproductiontofocusonlistening;

2.arrangingandplanningyourlearning:findingoutaboutlanguagelearning，organizing，settinggoalsandobjectives，identifyingthepurposeoflanguagetask，planningforlanguagetask，andseekingpracticeopportunities;and

3.evaluatingyourlearning:self-monitoringandself-evaluation.（p.137）

incomparisontoo'malley&chamot，oxford'sclassificationofmetacognitivestrategiesissimplerintermsofthethreestages.arrangingandplanningone'slearninginvolvesadvance-organizationstrategiessuchasfindingoutaboutlanguagelearning，organizing，settinggoalsandobjectives，identifyingthepurposeofalanguagetask，planningforalanguagetaskandseekingpracticeopportunities.centeringone'slearningisanon-lineorganizationstage，whichinvolvesthestrategiesofoverviewingandlinkingwiththealreadyknownmaterial，payingattentionanddelayingspeechproductiontofocusonlistening.thelastgroupinoxford'sclassificationcanberegardedasrelevanttobothon-lineandpostorganizationstages，sincethetwostrategies—self-monitoringandself-evaluationarenotonlyengagedinthecourseoftaskexecutionbutalsoaftercompletingatask.

thetwoclassificationsofoxfordando'malley&chamotsharemuchcommongroundinsubdividingmetacognitivestrategiesintermsofthesethreetypesofcognitiveprocesses:advanceorganization，on-lineorganizationandpostorganization，thoughtheymakeuseofdifferentterms.

basedonpreviousresearch，anderson（2002）hasproposedfivecategoriesofmetacognitivelanguagelearningstrategies，whichinclude:preparingandplanningforlearning，selectingandusinglearningstrategies，monitoringstrategyuse，orchestratingvariousstrategies，andevaluatingstrategyuseandlearning.

bypreparationandplanninginrelationtotheirlearninggoal，studentsthinkaboutwhattheirgoalsareandhowtheywillgoaboutaccomplishingthestudents，withthehelpoftheteacher，cansetarealisticgoalwithinasettimeforaccomplishingagoal.settingclear，challenging，andrealisticgoalscanhelpstudentsseetheirownprogressoflanguagelearningandhopefully，bybecomingconsciouslyawareoftheirprogress，thestudents'motivationforlanguagelearningwillincrease.

themetacognitiveabilitytoselectanduseparticularstrategiesinagivencontextforaspecificpurposemeansthatthelearnercanthinkaboutandmakeconsciousdecisionsconcerningthelearningprocess.learnersshouldbetaughtnotonlyaboutlearningstrategiesbutalsoaboutwhenandhowtousethestudentsshouldbeinstructedonhowtochoosethebestandmostappropriatestrategyinagivenlanguagelearningsituation.

thenextcategoryismonitoringstrategyuse.byexaminingandmonitoringtheiruseoflearningstrategies，studentshaveabetterchanceofsuccessinmeetingtheirlearninggoals（anderson，2002）.studentsshouldbeexplicitlytaughtthatoncetheyhaveselectedandbeguntousethespecificstrategies，theyneedtocheckperiodicallywhetherornotthosestrategiesareeffectiveandbeingusedasintended.

knowinghowtouseacombinationofstrategiesinanorchestratedfashionisanimportantmetacognitiveskill.research（e.g.，wenden，1998;vandergrift，2003a）hasshownthatsuccessfullanguagelearnerstendtoselectstrategiesthatworkwelltogetherinahighlyorchestratedway，tailoredtotherequirementsofthelanguagetask.theselearnerscaneasilyexplainthestrategiestheyuseandwhytheyemploythebasedono'malley，chamot&kupper（1989）claimedcertainstrategiesorclustersofstrategiesarelinkedtoparticularlanguageskillsortasks.forexample，l2listeningcomprehensionbenefitsfromstrategiesofelaboration，inferencing，selectiveattention，andself-monitoring.

oneofthemostimportantmetacognitivelanguagelearningstrategiesinvolvesevaluatingtheeffectivenessofstrategyuse.self-questioning，debriefingdiscussionsafterstrategypractice，learninglogsinwhichstudentsrecordtheresultsoftheirlearningstrategyapplications，checklistsofstrategiesandquestionnairesthatcanbeusedtoallowthestudenttoreflectthroughthecycleoflearning.atthisstageofmetacognitionthewholecycleofplanning，selecting，using，monitoringandorchestrationofstrategiesisevaluated.

anderson's（2002）classificationofmetacognitivelanguagelearningstrategiescanbeseentostillreflectthethreegeneralaspectsofmetacognition，i.e.，advanceorganization，on-lineorganizationandpostorganization.preparingandplanningforlearningcanbedirectlygroupedintoadvanceorganizationwhichoccurspriortoalearningtask.selectingandusinglearningstrategies，monitoringstrategyuse，andorchestratingvariousstrategiestogetherrepresentthestrategiesinvolvedinon-lineorganization.evaluatingstrategyuseandlearningcanberegardedasbothon-lineandpostorganizationstages，sinceitisnotonlyengagedinthecourseoftaskexecutionbutalsooccursaftercompletingatask.table3providesasummarymodelrelatingallofthethreetypologies.

table3asummarymodelofthethreetypologiesofmetacognitivestrategies

itshouldbenotedthatdifferentmetacognitivelanguagelearningstrategiesinteractwitheachother.thecomponentsarenotusedinalinearfashion.morethanonemetacognitiveprocessalongwithcognitiveonesmaybeworkingduringalearningtask（anderson，2002）.thereforetheorchestrationofvariousstrategiesisavitalcomponentofl2learning.

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